The holiday of Shemini Atzeret is full of contradictions. Is it part of Sukkot? Or is it its own holiday, a רֶגֶל בִּפְנֵי עַצְמוֹ?
In Vayikra chapter 23, we find the definition of the holiday of Sukkot, lasting seven days. The first day is defined as a מִקְרָא־קֹדֶש, on which creative work is prohibited: בַּיּוֹם הָרִאשׁוֹן מִקְרָא קֹדֶשׁ כָּל־מְלֶאכֶת עֲבֹדָה לֹא תַעֲשׂוּ. We are commanded to bring sacrifices for the seven days of the holiday, and then another day is added at the end of the verse: שִׁבְעַת יָמִים תַּקְרִיבוּ אִשֶּׁה לה׳ בַּיּוֹם הַשְּׁמִינִי מִקְרָא־קֹדֶשׁ יִהְיֶה לָכֶם וְהִקְרַבְתֶּם אִשֶּׁה לַֽה׳ עֲצֶרֶת הִוא כָּל־מְלֶאכֶת עֲבֹדָה לֹא תַעֲשׂו. On the eighth day of this seven-day holiday, we again have a מִקְרָא־קֹדֶש, and we again bring a sacrifice and are prohibited from doing creative work. What does it mean to have an eighth day of a seven-day holiday? The Midrash explains that Hashem added an additional day to the holiday in order to have the Jewish people remain with Him, as their departure was difficult for Him: קָשֶׁה עָלַי פְּרֵדַתְכֶם. In this description, it appears that Shemini Atzeret is simply an additional day of the holiday of Sukkot. However, the Torah records one way in which Shemini Atzeret is entirely different and separate from Sukkot — in the sacrifices that are offered. Over the seven days of Sukkot, there is a descending series of sacrifices, as described in the book of Bamidbar, and as mentioned in the Musaf davening. On the first day thirteen bulls are brought, along with two rams and fourteen lambs. While the number of rams and lambs remain constant all seven days, the number of bulls decreases by one every day until the seventh day, when seven bulls are brought. If Shemini Atzeret were simply a continuation of Sukkot, we would expect to bring six bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs. However, on Shemini Atzeret, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs are offered — in other words, it is not part of the series at all. In fact, this set of sacrifices is much more similar to the sacrifices brought on Rosh Hashanah than to the Sukkot offerings. From this we see that Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday, a רֶגֶל בִּפְנֵי עַצְמוֹ. The Talmud in Tractate Sukkah 48a lists six aspects of our observance that indicate that Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday. - פַּיִס: In the Beit Hamikdash, the assignment of the Kohanim to the Temple service was done by a lottery, and the Shemini Atzeret lottery was separate from that of Sukkot.
- זְמַן: We recite the שֶׁהֶחֱיָנו blessing on Shemini Atzeret, which we don’t do, for example, on the last days of Pesach.
- רֶגֶל: Rashi explains this to mean that Shemini Atzeret does not share the mitzvah of sukkah with the previous seven days.
- קָרְבָּן: As mentioned before, the Shemini Atzeret sacrifices are separate from those of Sukkot. Avudraham explains that the total of seventy bulls offered over the seven days of Sukkot represent the seventy nations of the world, while the single bull offered on Shemini Atzeret represents the singular nation of Israel.
- שִׁיר: The psalm sung by the Levi’im in the Beit Hamikdash was different for Shemini Atzeret.
- בְּרָכָה: This may refer to the fact that we refer to Shemini Atzeret separately in the davening, or it may refer to the fact that the nation of Israel gathered together and were blessed by the king on Shemini Atzeret.
There is a difference of opinion about how to refer to Shemini Atzeret in the davening. The majority opinion, which includes Rashi, Rabbi Yosef Karo, and the Vilna Gaon, is that it is called שְׁמִינִי חַג הָעֲצֶרֶת הַזֶּה. The Rama differs slightly from this, saying that we should just say שְׁמִינִי הָעֲצֶרֶת הַזֶּה because it is not referred to as a חַג in the Torah. And the Magen Avraham has a different order of words, calling it שְׁמִינִי עֲצֶרֶת הַחַג הַזֶּה. The Torah readings for the different holidays are listed in the Talmud. It says that on Shemini Atzeret we read from Devarim chapter 14, starting with כָּל הַבְּכוֹר, as we do on the last day of Pesach. Rashi changes that slightly, saying that we start earlier, at עַשֵּׂר תְּעַשֵּׂר, because this section talks about the fall season, which is relevant to this holiday. This is what we do. The Haftarah is from מְלָכִים פרק ח, which discusses the blessing of the king for the nation. However, in Israel, the reading for Shemini Atzeret is replaced with Parshat Vezot Haberachah, because Simchat Torah and Shemini Atzeret are all one holiday in Israel. In the Musaf of Shemini Atzeret we recite the prayer for rain. This is another indication that this holiday is separate from Sukkot, because we specifically don't pray for rain on Sukkot so that rain will not prevent us from eating in the sukkah. Outside of Israel, many people eat in the sukkah on Shemini Atzeret, another reminder of how ambiguous this holiday is. The reason for eating in the sukkah is due to the question of whether the day is Shemini Atzeret or actually the seventh day of Sukkot. The Gemara tells us that on Shemini Atzeret we should eat in the sukkah but not recite the blessing. The Avudraham poses the question: If you are going to eat in the sukkah because of the doubt, why do you not also take the lulav and etrog without a blessing? He explains that the mitzvah of sitting in the sukkah is a דְּאוֹרָיְיתָא all seven days of the holiday, making it important to perform in cases of doubt. However, the mitzvah of lulav is only mandated in the Torah for the first day of the holiday. All other days, we do it in commemoration of what was done in the Beit Hamikdash. As it is not a דְּאוֹרָיְיתָא, it does not need to be performed out of doubt. Outside of Israel, the holidays of Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are celebrated on consecutive days. In Israel, the holiday of Simchat Torah is combined with the holiday of Shemini Atzeret and celebrated on the same day. Simchat Torah is not mentioned in the Torah or the Talmud, although its Torah reading is mentioned as the reading for the second day of Shemini Atzeret. The practices of Simchat Torah as we know them started in the time of the Geonim. Simchat Torah is the only time that we read the Torah at night, and there is never an explanation given as to why we do this. The הַקָּפוֹת, the processions around the bimah, are not mentioned in the Talmud. They are first mentioned by Rabbi Isaac Tyrnau in the 14th–15th century. We do these on Simchat Torah in both the evening and the day. Chasidim also do them on the evening of Shemini Atzeret. The הַקָּפוֹת are similar to the הוֹשַׁעֲנוֹת done on Hoshanah Rabbah, where we circle the bimah with all the Torahs from the ark seven times. The person who is called to the aliyah for the last eight sentences in the Torah is called Chatan Torah; this is considered a great honor. Immediately after finishing the end of the Torah, we start over with the reading of the beginning of Bereishit. The person called to that aliyah is called Chatan Bereishit, also a great honor. We begin the Torah immediately to show that we are not only happy to finish the Torah but also to start it again. The Haftarah is from the first chapter of the book of יְהוֹשֻׁעַ, the first book of the prophets. It is almost a continuation of the end of the Torah.
Chag sameach! | 
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